Chinese immigrants began arriving in America in significant numbers in the 1850s at California gold mines. Most came from the southern provinces of China, where war, persecution and famine caused the deaths of millions.1 Charles Crocker, one of the "Big Four" California businessmen who helped fund the Central Pacific Railroad, led the way in giving the immigrants jobs. Ignoring protests from white foremen, Crocker said, "Who said laborers have to be white to build railroads?" Opposition quickly disappeared, however, as Chinese laborers proved hardworking and courageous.2

Chinese provided the bulk of the labor for the transcontinental railroads. They struggled with rocks, snow and biting wind in the mountains. "Landslides tore away work that had taken weeks or months," burying Chinese and other workers. Swinging from baskets suspended by ropes, Chinese men drilled holes in the face of rock walls to hold dynamite. Hundreds died on the cliffs and in the tunnels.3

Who said laborers have to be white to build railroads? - Charles Crocker Initially this situation was acceptable to white workers. Chinese laborers were not a threat as long as they stuck with menial work, said historian Richard White. Resentment grew, however, when Chinese workers attempted to move into other industries. Protests against Chinese labor grew until Chinese expulsion became legal in 1882.

Such attitudes and so much violence would make it easy to dismiss the Chinese as mere victims. But that would be an injustice, according to Liping Zhu, who wrote about Chinese immigrants living in Idaho. He argued that as Chinese in Idaho adopted aspects of western culture, whites grew more tolerant; Chinese immigrants "had remarkable access to economic upward mobility" compared to their lives in China and in the end "tasted more success than failure in their search for better lives."